Developments in Renaissance Art

The European Renaissance lasted approximately from the 15^th century to the 17^th century and is distinguished by its revival of the arts, literature, learning and culture. The movement began in modern-day Italy and spread across Europe, resulting in a broad dispersion of Renaissance themes with unique regional interpretations. During this period, traditionally powerful institutions like the Church had their roles in society change. Additionally, powerful groups of artists, merchants and professionals emerged and challenged the traditionally rigid economic system. Four prominent artists who reflected the changes and developments of Renaissance society were Donatello, Boticelli, Raphael and Durer.

Donatello. St. George. 1417-1420

Donatello was a prominent Renaissance sculptor who worked primarily during the Early Renaissance. Early in his career, Donatello worked under Lorenzo Ghiberti which developed his ability to work with different physical materials in his sculptures. Working under prominent artists was a common occurrence during the period and allowed for young artists to emulate styles and gain recognition. Two of Donatello’s major works that reflected Early Renaissance society were “St. George” and “David”. The two pieces were sculpted roughly 40 years apart, but are both Early Renaissance pieces, consistent with the theme of portraying religious figures. The “St. George” sculpture depicts the figure standing tall (6’5”) and powerful in a military outfit including armor and a prominent sword. St. George is positioned on top of a base and is encompassed on three sides by a symmetrical structure. Stokstad writes, “This is also a pioneering example of linear perspective, in which the orthogonals converge on the figure of the saint himself. Donatello used this timely representational system not only to stimulate spatial recession, but also to provide narrative focus” (Stokstad, 618.) In addition to the narrative focus, the use of linear perspective adds power and strength from the viewer’s perspective. One explanation as to why St. George is depicted so powerfully is because the guild commissioning the painting wanted to incorporate their agenda. Stokstad writes, “As originally conceived, the saint would have been standing advertisement for their trade, carrying a sword in his right hand and probably wearing a metal helmet and sporting a scabbard, all now lost” (Stokstad, 617-618.) By inputting features associated with the guild, Donatello is associating the saint with the guild and adding public prominence to steel and weaponry. The symbolism for the sword and armor has also been interpreted as representing the need for stability during a time of warring cities. As Donatello sculpted this in Florence, “Although Florence was a free Republic during this time, it faced threats by other cities who were more powerful than itself” (Donatello St. George, 1.) Two of the major threats to Florence were Naples and Milan. St. Georges support this explanation as Stokstad writes, “He seems to stare out into our world, perhaps sizing up his most famous adversary… With his wrinkled brow and determined expression, he is alert and focused, if perhaps also slightly worried” (Stokstad, 618.) The two explanations of his power are not mutually exclusive, but rather speak to the breadth of topics that Donatello was able to incorporate into the piece including political conflict, marketing, public morale and religious heroism.

Donatello. David. 1446-1460

The “David” sculpture was another of Donatello’s significant pieces that further explained Early Renaissance society. Stokstad writes, “Was the first life-sized free-standing nude since antiquity” (Stokstad, 618.) Donatello’s choice to sculpt David naked is related to the concept of humanism and the Renaissance theme of finding beauty in the human body. Unlike St, George, David is not portrayed as powerfully, but instead has a sense of vulnerability based on his left arm position and slightly weak stance. In both sculptures the theme of religious warriors is evident and they are both holding swords and originally sculpted with helmets. Donatello was commissioned by the Medici family for this sculpture and shows that wealthy merchant classes were fond of religious artwork during the Early Renaissance. Stokstad writes, “David was a potent political image in Florence, a symbol of the citizens’ resolve to oppose tyrants regardless of their superior power” (Stokstad, 618.) “St. George” and “David” depict Donatello’s diverse skill at sculpting religious figures as symbols of strength and resilience, while explaining the socio-political tensions of society.

Sandro Botticelli. BIRTH OF VENUS. 1484-1486.

Botticelli was a very successful artist who focused on painting in the late 15^th century. “Primavera” and “Birth of Venus” were two of his most renowned works that were painted a few years apart from each other. It is indefinite who commissioned the paintings, however, the Medici family is the likely commissioner of these two pieces and many other Botticelli works. Both paintings focus on Venus, the goddess of love, and surround her with multiple figures. “Primavera” is set in a forest with a background of trees, while “Birth of Venus” is set shoreside near a body of water and with a few trees in the area. Botticelli uses symmetry very effectively in both paintings to draw a focus on Venus amidst multiple other figures. The theme of sexuality is prominent in both pieces as she looks pregnant in “Primavera” and in “Birth of Venus” she is naked and using her hair and hands to minimally cover herself. Sexuality is significant of the time because sexual expression and the sexuality of gods were not traditionally represented. Botticelli himself also was deeply affected by the conflict between religion and sexuality as Stokstad writes, “Botticelli, too, may have fallen into a state of religious fervor. In a gesture of repentance, he burned many of his earlier paintings" (Stokstad, 636.) The concept of love is depicted in a complicated way as Stokstad writes of Venus, “The first ruled over earthly, human love and the second over universal, divine love. In this way philosophers could argue that Venus was a Classical Virgin Mary” (Stokstad, 635.) The concept of love is also evident as Cupid can be seen hovering directly above Venus in “Primavera”. Another theme of Botticelli’s work is the idea of beauty, relating to the Renaissance question of redefining what is considered beautiful. Botticelli does this by not only making the figures as aesthetically beautiful as he can, but also by painting the beauty of the background nature. In “Primavera” the background is color-wise dark but has an abundance of colorful flowers and fruits hanging from the trees. Conversely in “Birth of Venus”, the background is bright and shows the pristine, unpolluted water and adds the presence of flowers. By depicting beauty in contradictory scenes, Botticelli is pointing out that beauty is arbitrary and can take many different forms. Stokstad connects his themes by noting that many of the flowers painted have historical associations with love and marriage (Stokstad, 635.) Furthermore, the idea of flowering is related to the idea of cycles and developing/being born. Botticelli’s use of the flowers shows that objects that have societal significance can also be viewed for the sheer aesthetic beauty they add. Botticelli’s works as a whole show the inquisitive nature of the Renaissance Movement and the need to question the traditional meanings of objects and figures, in relation to their current social significance.  

Sandro Botticelli. PRIMAVERA. 1482.

Raphael’s “The School of Athens” was a very powerful mid-Renaissance piece because of the number of characters and associated symbolism. The piece was commissioned by Pope Julius II for his private study room, representing the power the Church had in commissioning as well as the artistic interests of those with religious power. One powerful technique used is the linear perspective to create the depth of the hall and to focus on Plato and Aristotle. Symmetry is significant in this painting because there is an overarching angular and geometric feel to the painting. This can be seen in the symmetry of the arch above, Plato and Aristotle’s central positioning, the square boxes on the floor and in the bottom of the painting and the use of rectangles in the columns and open space. This reflects the Renaissance theme of integrating geometry and mathematical space/shape into artwork. As the painting was commissioned by the Church, god is present in the background as being sculpted into the walls and being above the room of thinkers. Humanism is evident in the painting as the congregation of Ancient thinkers who were revolutionary of their time can be viewed as superhuman for their inventions. Raphael shows his ego by including his own face in the artwork, which reflects the humanist ideal of the power of man and the belief in one’s own ability and knowledge. The choice to portray Ancient Greek thinkers is significant because they can be viewed as like the congregation of Renaissance artists and have similar questions and discussions. For example, the directional fingers of Plato and Aristotle can be symbolic of the perceived conflict between religion and Renaissance arts and science. Similarly, the congregation of leading individuals is representative of the Renaissance trend to gather artists into city hubs and work in the same chapels, such as the Sistine Chapel artwork. Raphael’s “School of Athens” was significant because it incorporated trends in Renaissance artwork and culture, while likening artists to historically revered thinkers.

Raphael. SCHOOL OF ATHENS. 1510-1511.

Albrecht Durer. SELF-PORTRAIT. 1500.

Albrecht Durer was a German Renaissance artist who was largely influenced by his travels to Italy and interactions with artists and culture. Stokstad writes, “Where he encountered a new conception of artists as noble intellectuals: participants in humanistic discourse and purveyors of ideas as well as pictures” (Stokstad, 691.) One of Durer’s most influential works was “Self-Portrait”, in which he paints only his upper body and makes it look like Jesus Christ, against a pitch-black background. Durer uses symmetry and a close perspective to further draw attention to himself. The portrait is a strong example of humanism as it empowers individual humans and reduces the distance between individuals and gods. Stokstad writes, “But there is no reason to see this as blasphemous. Since a principal component of Christian devotion in Durer’s time was the attempt to imitate Christ in the believer’s own life. He could also be depicting literally the biblical statement that humans are created in the image of God” (Stokstad, 691.) The reaction is slightly surprising because many traditionalists may have seen the work as insulting to equate one’s self to Jesus Christ. The symbolism of religion in this piece is complex because god is not directly positioned within the art, but the subject is relating himself to god. Additionally, it provides a different interpretation to depicting godly figures in their pure form and exuding strength, while being situated clearly above and separate from humans. Durer differentiates himself from many Italian Renaissance artists by using a black background rather than a beautiful or colorful scenery, emphasizing the details of his skin and clothing. Stokstad writes of the Northern European influence, “But at its core, this picture fits into a long-standing Northern European interest in the meticulous description of surface texture” (Stokstad, 691.) The lack of a commission on this painting is significant because it allows Durer more freedom in expressing his perspective and interpretation of Renaissance society. Durer shows his ego like Raphael by both painting themselves akin to revered figures, making the argument that the Renaissance artists are equally important and relevant. Durer’s work is significant because it occurs Mid-Renaissance and has a very different feel to it than Italian paintings, but maintains the concept of humanism while depicting in a very unique way.

Overall, the Renaissance was a period that focused on the expression of new, challenging ideas through art and culture. The transition from Early to Mid Renaissance art can be seen in the style of religious depiction in the work. Additionally, Durer’s work sticks out from the other Italian artists that focus on beauty and painting broad scenes rather than focused portraits. The influence of commissioning artwork: the Church and elite families. Finally, Renaissance art is marked by its ability to explain the changes and developments in society through strong symbolism and imagery.

Works Cited

Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael Watt Cothren. Art History. Sixth ed., II, Pearson, 2018.

Wikipedia contributors. "Primavera (Botticelli)." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 28 Sep. 2019. Web. 17 Oct. 2019. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Primavera_(Botticelli)&oldid=918402428

Wikipedia contributors. "Donatello." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 14 Oct. 2019. Web. 17 Oct. 2019. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Donatello&oldid=921252418

ItalianRenaissance.org, "Botticelli’s Primavera," in ItalianRenaissance.org, June 26, 2012, http://www.italianrenaissance.org/a-closer-look-botticellis-primavera/.

ItalianRenaissance.org, "Donatello’s St. George," in ItalianRenaissance.org, May 8, 2013, http://www.italianrenaissance.org/donatellos-st-george/.

Stewart, Jessica. “The Story Behind Raphael's Masterpiece 'The School of Athens'.” My Modern Met, 6 Sept. 2018, https://mymodernmet.com/school-of-athens-raphael/